Architecture is the practice of building design and its resulting products; customary usage refers only
to those designs and structures that are culturally significant. Architecture is to building as literature
is to the printed word. Vitruvius, a 1st-century BC Roman, wrote encyclopedically about architecture,
and the English poet Sir Henry Wotton was quoting him in his charmingly phrased dictum: “Well
building hath three conditions: Commoditie, Firmenes, and Delight.” More prosaically, one would
say today that architecture must satisfy its intended uses, must be technically sound, and must convey
aesthetic meaning. But the best buildings are often so well constructed that they outlast their original
use. They then survive not only as beautiful objects, but as documents of the history of cultures,
achievements in architecture that testify to the nature of the society that produced them. These
achievements are never wholly the work of individuals. Architecture is a social art.
Architectural form is inevitably influenced by the technologies applied, but building technology is
conservative and knowledge about it is cumulative. Precast concrete, for instance, has not rendered
brick obsolete. Although design and construction have become highly sophisticated and are often
computer directed, this complex apparatus rests on preindustrial traditions inherited from millennia
during which most structures were lived in by the people who erected them. The technical demands
on building remain the elemental ones – to exclude enemies, to circumvent gravity, and to avoid
discomforts caused by an excess of heat or cold or by the intrusion of rain, wind, or vermin. This is
no trivial assignment even with the best modern technology.
The availability of suitable materials fostered the crafts to exploit them and influenced the shapes
of buildings. Large areas of the world were once forested, and their inhabitants developed carpentry.
Although it has become relatively scarce, timber remains an important building material.
Many kinds of stone lend themselves to building. Stone and marble were chosen for important
monuments because they are incombustible and can be expected to endure. Stone is also a sculptural
material; stone architecture was often integral with stone sculpture. The use of stone has declined,
however, because a number of other materials are more amenable to industrial use and assembly.
Some regions lack both timber and stone; their peoples used the earth itself, tamping certain
mixtures into walls or forming them into bricks to be dried in the sun. Later they baked these
substances in kilns, producing a range of bricks and tiles with greater durability.

According to the passage, the term “architecture” is normally used to refer to the
designs and structures that have ______.

Which of the following is NOT considered an essential characteristic of architecture
according to the passage

When well-constructed buildings exist longer than their original use, they serve as ______.

The author uses the phrase “social art” in the first paragraph to emphasise that architecture is
an ______.

According to the passage, knowledge about building technology ______.

The word “obsolete” in paragraph 2 mostly means ______.

Which of the following factors must be taken into account in both ancient and modern
architecture according to the information in paragraph 2?

According to the passage, stone and marble were used for buildings of historical
importance because they ______.

According to the passage, today stone has been used less as a building material because ______.

The word “their” in the last paragraph refers to ______.

Most journeys in Britain and the US are made by road. Some of these are made on public transport
but most are by private car.
In Britain many people rely on their cars for daily local activities, e.g. getting to work, doing the
shopping, and visiting friends. People living in urban areas may use buses, trains or, in London, the
Underground, to get to city centres, mainly because traffic is often heavy and it is difficult to find
anywhere to park a car. Some places in the country may have a bus only two or three times a week so
people living there have no choice but to rely on their cars.
In the US large cities have good public transportation systems. The El railroad in Chicago and the
underground systems of New York, Boston, San Francisco and Washington, DC are heavily used.
Elsewhere, most Americans prefer to use their cars. Families often have two cars and, outside major
cities, have to drive fairly long distances to schools, offices, shops, banks, etc. Many college and even
high-school students have their own cars.
Long-distance travel in Britain is also mainly by road, though railways link most towns and cities.
Most places are linked by motorways or other fast roads and many people prefer to drive at their
own convenience rather than use a train, even though they may get stuck in a traffic jam. Longdistance coach/bus services are usually a cheaper alternative to trains, but they take longer and may
be less comfortable. Some long-distance travel, especially that undertaken for business reasons, may
be by air. There are regular flights between regional airports, as well as to and from London. A lot of
freight is also distributed by road, though heavier items and raw materials often go by rail.
In the US much long-distance travel is by air. America has two main long-distance bus companies,
Greyhound and Trailways. Amtrak, the national network, provides rail services for passengers.
Private railway companies such as Union Pacific now carry only freight, though in fact over 70% of
freight goes by road.
The main problems associated with road transport in both Britain and the US are traffic congestion
and pollution. It is predicted that the number of cars on British roads will increase by a third within a
few years, making both these problems worse. The British government would like more people to use
public transport, but so far they have had little success in persuading people to give up their cars or to
share rides with neighbours. Most people say that public transport is simply not good enough.
Americans too have resisted government requests to share cars because it is less convenient and
restricts their freedom. Petrol/gasoline is relatively cheap in the US and outside the major cities
public transport is bad, so they see no reason to use their cars less.

In Britain and the US most people travel by ______.

According to the passage, people in London may prefer the Underground to their own
cars due to ______.

It is mentioned in paragraph 3 that the public transportation systems in the US are good
in ______

Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?

The phrase “at their own convenience” in paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to ______